第一章  作文概述


1．GRE作文对考生的要求



    GRE作文考试是在ETS的组织下经过多年的研究、试验后慎重推出的。ETS首先组织全美高校各学科领域的学者根据本学科对学生知识结构的基本要求设计作文题，然后将每一道题投入考试试验，这样逐步建立起一个完善的题库。随后，ETS又组织专业人员对作文机考进行技术可行性研究，并组织专门阅卷班子进行训练，以确保评分标准的科学性以及阅卷的客观性和公正性。目前，GRE作文测试系统已得到北美各研究生院的广泛认可。

    GRE作文考试旨在考察考生在限定的时间内对较复杂的政抬、经济、社会、文化等方面的种种问题进行快速思辨和准确表达的能力，要求考生：

    · 清楚有效地表达复杂的思想；

    · 分析所给的观点及相关证据；

    · 用理由和例证支持自己的观点；

    · 论证中心突出，有条理和逻辑性；

    · 能使用规范的英文进行写作。

    同IELTS、TOEFL的作文考试相比，GRE的作文考试要难得多，其难度与GMAT的作文相当，甚至可以说更难一些。虽然它的作文考题来自于题库，但这些题目涉及的范围非常宽广，涉及人文、社会学科诸多领域，因此．要求考生有较宽的知识面。例如，是非问题分析（Analysis of an Issue）中有这样一道题：



“When we concern ourselves with the study of history，we become storytellers. Because we can never know the past directly but must construct it by interpreting evidence, exploring history is more of a creative enterprise than it is an objective pursuit．All historians are storytellers．”



这个问题涉及历史学的基本理论。这种枯燥的问题恐怕一般考生平常是不会关心的。再如：



"What is called human nature is really a reflection of the human condition: if all people had a reasonable share of territory and resources, such products of 'human nature' as war and crime would become extremely rare."



这是一个颇有几分哲学意味的题目，要写好这个题目，考生若没有一点抽象思辨的能力是很难的。

    其次，逻辑问题分析（Analysis of an Argument）是中国考生的又一难关。这一方面因为中国的大学里很少开逻辑课，中国学生的逻辑分析能力相对贫乏，另一方面是因为用英文对逻辑问题进行分析谈何容易。

    总体来说，中国考生在GRE作文考试上面临的最大挑战在于用规范的书面英语快速、准确地表达对复杂问题的有深度的看法。

    当然，再难的考试也难不倒勤劳、勇敢的中国人民。危难之处，方显英雄本色。可以说，从一个角度看，GRE作文考试的推出是在你留学申请的道路上设置了又一道障碍；但从另一个角度看，只要你充分准备，自信应战，它将为你提供一个从千百万竞争者中脱颖而出的机遇。

    重要的是，你必须知己知彼，运筹帷幄，才能百战不殆。



2．GRE作文成绩的重要性



    过去，GRE考试只有综合考试和单项考试。国外的研究生院逐渐发现，大量的考生虽然在这两方面的分数很高，但写作能力极端欠缺．入学后很难顺利地完成学业。原因很简单，GRE的综合考试和单项考试成绩只能反映考生的理解能力，而对于入学后的学习来说，学生的书面表达能力如果说不是更重要，至少可以说是同样重要。在此情况下，ETS便及时推出GRE写作考试。此项考试推出后立刻受到北美各研究生院的重视；在招生录取时，各研究生院均依据申请者的作文成绩来判断他们：

    · 成功地适应研究生层次学习的能力；

    · 其它测试以及申请文书无法反映的从事学术研究的能力；

    · 相对于其它同类申请者的比较优势。

    因此，凡是希望在强手如云的入学申请和奖学金申请赛中高人一筹、捷足先登的求学者都应该未雨绸缪，勇敢地迎接GRE写作考试的挑战。

    同时，立志留学海外的学子也应该十分清楚地认识到，在英文听、说、读、写、译这五项基本技能中，写作是最难提高的，然而它却是你顺利完成海外学业、有效从事社会交际、成功推展个人事业的最重要的技能之一，如果不在出国前打好写作基础，即便侥幸出国，恐怕也很难顺利地完成学业，更不用指望有更大的事业发展，并最终实现自己的宏伟抱负。因此，出国前的你在忙忙碌碌中别忘了安排出足够的时间好好攻攻英文写作，实实在在地提高英文写作水平。英文里有一句格言：

The secret of achievement is to not let what you're doing get to you before you get to it.

记住这句话，Get to WRITING NOW!



3．GRE作文的考试内容



    GRE作文考试要求写两篇作文。第一篇作文时间为45钟，要求对一个是非问题（两题选一）提出自己的见解：第二篇作文时间为30分钟，要求分析一个逻辑问题。对于是非问题，考生可以选取任何角度展开分析，只要能提供有力的证据支持自己的观点就行。也就是说，考生不必过于担心自己的立场是否正确，重要的是言之成理，自圆其说。逻辑问题考查的是考生的分析能力，它要求考生剖析一段逻辑论述，探讨该论述的逻辑性。对于逻辑问题作文，考生无需对题中的立场表示赞同或反对，而应集中分析该论述的逻辑性是否严密。

    简单地说，第一篇作文考查考生确立自己的观点并加以论证的能力，第二篇作文考查考生发现并剖析所给论证中逻辑错误的能力。

    另外，考生必须清楚，你在考场上实际得到的作文题将是从ETS公布的GRE作文题库（见本书第五、六章）中直接抽出的。因此，你完全有可能提前做好准备。只是，这么多道题从哪里准备起，又如何准备，这依然是一个大问题。不用急，往下看，本书正是要帮助你一步步登堂入室，稳操胜券。



4．GRE作文的评分



    每篇作文按6分制进行总体评分，即每篇作文的最后得分不是其单项（如结构、内容、语法等）成绩的总和，而是看该文的总体质量。阅卷人都是经过严格训练的老手，他们来自北美高校，都有多年从事作文教学的经验，而且事先都经过了严格的训练，以确保阅卷时判分的标准统一、客观、公正和准确。

    ETS对阅卷的程序也作了严密的设计。每篇作文由两名阅卷人同时评分，最后的成绩是这两个评分的平均分。如果对同一篇作文的两个评分相差大于一分，则必须由第三位阅卷人再次评分。在阅卷的过程中，考生的作文卷随机分发给阅卷人，有关考生的任何信息都被隐藏；同时，阅卷人也无法知道其他阅卷人对同一篇作文的评分，也就是说，每一位阅卷人独立评分。

    现在，考生可以选择机考或笔考。如果选择机考，那么你的作文将由人脑和电脑（E-Rater）分别评阅，规则与全人脑阅卷完全相同。

    值得注意的是，如果你选择机考作文，那么作文成绩可以在10-15天内通知本人和学校；如果你选择笔考，那要等6周后才能得到作文成绩。

第一课时
第一节

Nightmare

nightmare           a beautiful dream

You create opportunities. You develop the capacities for moving toward opportunity. You turn crisis into creative opportunities and defeats into successes and frustration into fulfillment.

With what? With your great invisible weapons: your good feelings about yourself, your determination to live the best life you can, and your feeling-that only you can give yourself-that you are a worthwhile, deserving person. You must fight for your right to fulfill the opportunity that God gave you to use your life well.

You create opportunities. You develop the capacities for moving toward opportunity. You turn crisis into creative opportunities and defeats into successes and frustration into fulfillment.

With what? With your great invisible weapons: your good feelings about yourself, your determination to live the best life you can, and your feeling-that only you can give yourself-that you are a worthwhile, deserving person. You must fight for your right to fulfill the opportunity that God gave you to use your life well.

privilege

advantage

I create opportunities. I develop the capacities for moving toward opportunity. I turn crisis into creative opportunities and defeats into successes and frustration into fulfillment.  With what? With my great invisible weapons: my good feelings about myself, my determination to live the best life I can, and my feeling-that only I can give myself-that I am a worthwhile, deserving person. I must fight for my right to fulfill the opportunity that God gave me to use my life well.

用两讲左右的时间，覆盖GRE WRITING技巧，经验，秘决等重要内容.

另外探讨题库里面的题目，新题，难题.

第二节

Argument

issue: present your perspective on an issue.

考你的见解能力。确立一种观点，论证自己的能力

45分钟

two choices

注意：所有的题目都是从题库中出来的，可选自己喜欢熟悉的。题库250道题目左右。

Argument

analyse and argument

一段完整的分析、论证，有逻辑错误,要求抓住逻辑错误，攻击它。高分的第一点。抓住要害，攻击的语言可以不专业。

30分钟。

两篇作文的顺序：先issue后argument

手工阅卷和computer 阅卷结合

6分制，10-15天收到成绩

在两篇作文的安排上，首先确保Argument 拿到高分,然后尽量在Issue 提高分值。综合起来确保拿到4分以上的 成绩。

5分以上的成绩是很优秀的

Argument 备考策略

第一， 掌握一些基本的分析技巧。

第二， 开头和结尾要有一个框架和现成的模式。30分钟写300--400字。

       必须争分夺秒

第三， 注意掌握一些闪光句型。原题里有大量的信息可以利用，而且

       必须利用。

第四， 熟悉每一道题并准备提纲。

在上考场前练20--30篇文章。

把题库里的每一道题输入电脑。把所有的提纲输入电脑。

第三节

Argument 备考策略

审题问题。

1.        一句话的论述背景

2.        整块的题干本身，有逻辑错误

3.        写作要求，要求讨论论述是否严密，有什么论据有问题，论据和假

3.   设间的问题，指出怎样加强论述

Argument 备考策略

审题问题。每道题由三大块构成。

题干本身基本上是由三个要素组成。

第一个要素是作者的claim or conclusion.

表明作者主张的信号词：so, therefore, consequently, hence

   thus.

第二个要素：作者的论据。evidence : facts, examples, statistics,

                authorities,

第三个要素：作者的assumptions. 是作者的一种观点、一种想法.阶段性的结论，小结论。









第四节

The following is a memorandum from the director of personnel to the president of Get-Away Airlines.

"Since our mechanics are responsible for inspecting and maintaining our aircraft, Get-Away Airlines should pay to send them to the Quality-Care Seminar, a two week seminar on proper maintenance procedures. I recommend this seminar because it is likely to be a wise investment, given that the automobile racing industry recently reported that the performance of its maintenance crews improved markedly after their crews had attended the seminar.

These maintenance crew perform many of the same functions as do our mechanics, including refueling and repairing engines. The money we spend on sending our staff to the seminar will inevitably lead to improved maintenance and thus to greater customer satisfaction along with greater profits for our airline."

这篇文章作者的主张是应当送人去培训。

由证据--假设--结论

攻击这样的假设。

首先，赛车行业适合的项目，航空公司是适合的吗？

赛车行业的员工去参加培训到底在多大程度上受益。

其次，客户的满意度能不能提高是一个值得怀疑的假设。

最后，profits的问题。利润的问题涉及到the situation of the market, supply and demand

competition. customers. cost.h

第五节

典型逻辑错误问题

1.        数据类问题。调查 survey, 用数据做证据的问题。要考虑数据是不是

1.具有代表性，是不是具有典型意义。

为了确保结果具有代表性，通常有三个步骤要考虑。

第一步，我们把调查的对象分成几个组成部分group—subgroups

第二步， 确定子群在总群中的比例。

第三步， 按照比例随机抽取样品。具有代表性的 representative。

提问的方式： What procedure was used?

Argument 的写作步骤

写作步骤

第一步： 快速审题（2分钟）

第二步： 写第一段（5分钟）

第三步： 写正文提纲（3分钟）

第四步： 写正文（14分钟）

第五步： 写结尾（3分钟）

第六步： 检查（3分钟）

快速抓住结论和证据、假设

In this argument, the arguer concludes that...

第一句指出原论证的结论。

第二、三句指出原论证的论据或者假设。

第四句表明自己对原论证的判断。

先写出正文每段的 topic sentence.

确保大局。

第六节

把topic sentence 展开成一个段落。

Issue 有两道题

段与段之间空一行，在电脑上写作，开头可以不空

功能键：

cut, paste, undo

没有copy 键

Argument

开头段的写作

In this argument, the arguer concludes that sending the mechanics of Get-Away Airlines to a two-week Quality-Care Seminar on proper maintenance procedures will automatically lead to improved maintenance and to greater customer satisfaction along with greater profits for the airline. To support the conclusion, the arguer points out that the performance of the maintenance crews in the automobile racing industry improved markedly after their crews had attended the seminar.

指出原论证的结论。

原题中论证的人可以用arguer代替

第二句是原题信息的复述，论据的复述

把原论证里的一个假设说出来。

reason v.推理，后面加宾语从句

In this argument, the arguer concludes that sending the mechanics of Get-Away Airlines to a two-week Quality-Care Seminar on proper maintenance procedures will automatically lead to improved maintenance and to greater customer satisfaction along with greater profits for the airline. To support the conclusion, the arguer points out that the performance of the maintenance crews in the automobile racing industry improved markedly after their crews had attended the seminar.

To support the conclusion, the arguer points out that the performance of the maintenance crews in the automobile racing industry improved markedly after their crews had attended the seminar.In addition, the arguer reasons that since the maintenance crews of the automobile racing industry and the mechanics of Get-Away Airlines perform many of the same functions, the airlines will

gain similar benefits from the training program.

1.        完整，忠实的复述原论据，假设。

2.        抓住原论证的主要论据和主要假设。

3.        只谈论据。或者只谈假设。

This argument suffers from several critical fallacies.

第七节

In this argument, the arguer recommends that Claria should advise its citizens to install both air conditioners and fans for cooling in order to reduce the cost of electricity. To justify this claim, the arguer provides the evidence that many citizens of Claria suffer from the rising costs of electricity.

Argument 47:

Thus, the citizens of Claria should follow the study's recommendation and use both air conditioners and fans in order to save money on electricity.

开头段的中间两句只谈证据。

In this analysis, the arguer claims that Pierce University should offer employment to the spouse of each new faculty member that they hire. To substantiate the conclusion, the arguer cites the example of Bronston College where professors prefer to have their spouse employed in the same geographical area.

In addition, the arguer assumes that this offer of a possible job for their spouse on the campus, no matter whether it will be accepted, is the only factor that new professors consider in deciding whether to accept a university position. This argument is unconvincing for several critical flaws.

指出原来的假设。

In this argument, the arguer advocates that the Cedar Corporation should hire Discount Foods, a family-owned local company that offers a varied menu of fish and poultry, instead of the Good-Taste Company, the present supplier of food in Cedar's employee cafeteria.

This recommendation is based on the observation that the Good-Taste is expensive, that its prices have kept rising, that it does not serve special diets, and that three employees complained about it. Meanwhile, the arguer assumes Discount to be a better choice for Cedar because a sample lunch of this company that the arguer happened to taste was delicious. This argument is problematic for two reasons.

这个从句后面是论据。

assume 后面是假设。

The conclusion in this argument is that Foley College can expect to increase enrollment by promising to find jobs for students after their graduation. In support of this prediction, the arguer claims that college-bound students are increasingly concerned about job prospects after graduation.

用表语从句的方式提出作者的主张

claim 后提出原论证的假设

Moreover, the arguer assumes that this attempt has three benefits: (1) to enable Foley to compete with more famous schools; (2) to encourage students to start career preparation early; (3) to encourage students to complete coursework. This argument is fraught with vague, oversimplified and unwarranted assumptions.

This argument is fraught with vague, oversimplified and unwarranted assumptions.

be faught with 充满

写第一段应注意：

1.在归纳原论证信息的时候尽可能用自己的词汇和句式。

2.        关键核心的词汇可以保留。复述信息要准确，客观。

3.        注意动词的时态

4.        （1）分析性的词汇，对于原论者的指责，批驳是一般现在时。

这篇文章的主体时态是一般现在时。

（2）复述原文的证据要保留原文中的时态。

第八节

In this argument, the arguer concludes that sending the mechanics of Get-Away Airlines to a two-week Quality-Care Seminar on proper maintenance procedures will automatically lead to improved maintenance and to greater customer satisfaction along with greater profits for the airline.

In addition, the arguer reasons that since the maintenance crews of the automobile racing industry and the mechanics of Get-Away Airlines perform many of the same functions, the airlines will gain similar benefits from the training program. This argument suffers from several critical fallacies.

在一般现在时和一般过去时之间替换

偶尔也会涉及到一般将来时。

Argument

正文的写作

一、  段落数量的问题。

2--4段

原则是一个逻辑错误用一个段落进行攻击。特殊情况，一道题里主要的逻辑错误只有两个

还有一些小问题，就把小问题放到一段里。全文3--6段。

二、正文的每一段开头必须有一个topic sentence. 指出这一段要攻

    击的问题。

       The major problem with this argument is that...

Anotherflaw that weakens this argument is that...

In addition,  the arguer ignores several other factors that might   

       undermine the argument.

Section two: Lecture Notes

1. Topic Sentence Patterns For Argument Essay

可以用于正文的每一段开头，点出一个逻辑问题的句式。

1.        The argument rests on the gratuitous/unreasonable assumption that ...

2.        The arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between A and B.

没有做到，没有说服我们，没有提出论据等都可以用fail to .

3.        The major problem with this argument is that...

4.        The arguer unfairly assumes that...

5.        The arguer's conclusion depends on the questionable assumption that ...

大部分时候都是攻击假设，然后再看论据是不是支持假设。

6.        The arguer fails to take into account  (consider/explain) other possible reasons why ...

7.         The arguer fails to provide any evidence that .../ information concerning...

concerning 后面加名词

8.        Another point worth considering is that ...

正文的第二个段落。

9.        The reasoning that  ... is open to doubt(problematic/questionable/ unconvincing/unfounded/unwarranted)

reasoning 后面是同位语

10.     Another assumption in short of legitimacy is the causal relationship claimed between A and B.

11.     The arguer ignores other relevant factors concerning …

12.     The arguer oversimplifies…

13.     The arguer overemphasizes the importance of …

14.      The conclusion reached in this argument is invalid and probably misleading.

15.     The conclusion lacks credibility because the evidence cited in the analysis does not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains.

16.     The arguer commits a fallacy of…

当你很清楚作者犯了什么逻辑错误，而且你知道那个概念用英文怎么说。

17.     The fact that…says little/nothing about…

18.      The fact that… does not ensure that .../ lends no strong support to …

第九节

The arguer fails to convince us that…

19.      The evidence provided in this argument is not sufficient to validate the assumption that…

20.     The statistical evidence/ the result of the survey upon which the argument relies if too vague to be informative.

21.     It makes no sense that …

二、  攻击的方法。

二、  三种基本思路。

1.        例证法。举出反例来攻击对方推理

Argument 57

    In addition, the arguer fails to consider several other relevant factors that may influence new professors' decision. For instance, since Pierce's location is not ideal, the pay it offers should be high enough to be attractive. New gifted professors are also concerned about the position they can have and the courses they are supposed to teach in the new university.

What's more, what researchers care most about might be the university's research conditions such as laboratory equipments, adequate research funds, etc.

2.假设法。假设最常用的信号词是 if还有even if granted

       that we can not ensure that only when, unless in

       this case i ,in that case, even so

First of all, the argument is based on a hasty generalization. According to the cited studies, professors at Bronston College are happier living in small towns when their spouses are also employed in the local area than when their spouses work in distant areas, which is understandable.



This fact tells very little about what actual conditions the professors often consider as important when they choose where to work. Even if we accept the arguer's assumption that whether their spouse can find a job in the local area is the only important question that new professors consider when they decide whether to accept an offer in a university situated in a small town, the arguer's recommendation is still unconvincing.



Only when the offer of employment to the spouse is regarded as an ideal one and therefore accepted is it likely that the professor will consider accepting the university's offer. Consequently, it is unwarranted to assume that new professors will accept Pierce's offer whether their spouse can find satisfactory employment in the local area.



Finally, the arguer hints that the morale of Pierce's entire staff is low, but he fails to analyze the causes. It is because the management of the university is poor, or because the pay is too low, or because the local area suffers from economic depression, or because the local environment is severely damaged by industrial pollution?



Under these circumstances, offering employment to the spouse would be ineffective at all for the purpose of attracting more new professors. Furthermore, if these problems do exist, even if Pierce succeeds in hiring many of the most gifted teachers and researchers of the country, the general morale of the whole faculty would remain low.

三、攻击的方法。

  三种基本思路。

   1.例证法。举出反例来攻击对方推理。

   2.假设法。假设最常用的信号词是 if, 还有even if, granted

       that, we can not ensure that, only when, unless, in

       this case, in that case, even so

2.        推测

推测的句型

      It is possible that..

It is equally possible that...

It is likely that...

It is also likely that...

3.推测

       推测的句型

       may

         might

第十节

In the second place, the comparison in this argument is incomplete and selective. The arguer discovers that using fans alone is more cost effective than using air conditioners alone, and that using both fans and air conditioners are the least expensive way of cooling. However, the arguer fails to provide any information regarding the actual amount of time for using, respectively, fans alone, air conditioners alone, and both fans and air conditioners in those three groups of surveyed families.

It is very likely that these three groups of families are located in three very different climatic regions of Claria, and hence the amount of days of the year during which they need to cool their houses varies significantly. Families living in cooler areas of the nation certainly cool their houses for fewer hours and hence use less electricity than families living in hot areas, no matter what cooling appliance they use.

Furthermore the arguer ignores the possibility that the families who are spending more on electricity may be using more electricity for purpose other than cooling. Unless the arguer also takes this factor into consideration, the comparison is unconvincing.

正文写作里要有一些比较漂亮的分析性句型

5.        The argument simply equates success with movie tickey sales, which is unwarranted.

1.        The mere fact that ticket sales in recent years for screenplay-based movies have exceeded those for book-based movies is insufficient evidence to conclude that writing screenplays now provides greater financial opportunity for writers.

2.        The argument fails to rule out the possibility that a writer engages in both types of writing as well as other types.

9.Common sense tells us that a photographer can succeed by working in both media.

12.Consequently, the mere fact that Company A holds a large share of the video-game hardware and software market does not support the claim that Company A will also fail.

14. While this may be true in some cases, it is equally possible that only companies with products that are already best-sellers can afford the higher ad. rate that popular shows demand.

16. One can infer from the survey's result that a full one-third of the respondents may have viewed the current benefits package unfavorably.

19. If so, even though 3 percent more accidents occurred after the change, the aurhor's argument that changing the speed limit increases danger for drivers would be seriously weakened.

21. In addition, while it is true that many voters change their minds several times before voting, and that some remain undecided until entering the voting booth, this is not true of everyone.

28. Consequently, unless the author can demonstrate that the city will incur expenses that are not covered by the increased revenues from these projects, the author's concern about these issues is unfounded.

32.The author ignores other likely benefits of agricultural technology that affect food pieces only indirectly or not at all.

34. However, unless the original cast and production team are involved in making the sequel, there is a good chance it will not be financially successful.

37. Without such evidence, we cannot accept the author's conclusion that no government funds should be directed toward maintaining the Styx River bridge.

44. Finally, the author unfairly trivializes the severity of rural crime by simply comparing it with urban crime.

trivialize   v. 小看， 不重视

54. Comprehensive analysis is necessary to identify the actual cause(s) of the company's lowered profitability.

58. The statistics offered in the announcement warrants only the conclusion that the decline of The Mercury's circulation and the alleged competitor, the lower-priced newspaper The Bugle, coexisted in the past five years.

60. Therefore, any decision aimed at addressing the problem of falling circulation must be based on more thorough investigation to gather sufficient data in order to narrow down and locate the actual cause(s) of the problem.

63. From the survey quoted in the argument, however, we find no sign of such procedures for random sampling, and have good reason to doubt if the sample is representative enough to reflect the general attitudes of all workers as a whole.

64. When samples are used to make general claims about a particular group, the samples should be close enough in time to the generation they are used to support, so that historical changes will not invalidate the generalization.

70. The fact that the student performance improved after the application of interactive computer instruction does not necessarily imply that the new teaching method is responsible for the achievements.

73. But we are told nothing about the way the poll was conducted and how well it represented the public opinions.

74. But the problem is that the two situations are not similar enough to justify the analogical deduction.

analogical deduction 类比推理

96. The example cited, while suggestive of these trends, is insufficient to warrant their truth because there is no reason to believe that the data drawn from this unnamed region is representative of the entire country.

练习开头段

制定复习计划

第二课时
第一节

There are risks and costs to a program of action. But they are far less than the long range risks and costs of comfortable inaction.

(John F. Kennedy)

任何一项行动方案都会带来风险和代价

但是同舒舒服服的不行动相比，这样的风险和代价长远来看要小的多



Argument结尾的写作

1 How to write the ending.

(1)     完整的框架

(2)     不该有实质性的内容，主要为归纳、建议总结

结尾的两大任务：

1）   指出原论者未能完全有效地支持自己的结论

（2）指出原论者可从正文攻击的几个方面加强原论证

若攻击和结尾段只能选其一，（建议）选择攻击更重要

只要有可能一定要结尾，一两句话

In conclusion, the arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between sending Get-Away's mechanics to the Quality-Care Seminar and improved maintenance, greater customer satisfaction and greater profits for the airline. To strengthen the argument, the arguer would have to provide evidence that automobile maintenance and airplane maintenance are similar in every aspect.

The following is a memorandum from the director of personnel to the president of Get-Away Airlines.

第一段的第一句话是相互照应的

第一段的第一句话是说文章原作者的结论、主张

如何加强原论证

In conclusion, the arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between sending Get-Away's mechanics to the Quality-Care Seminar and improved maintena-nce, greater customer satisfaction and greater profits for the airline. To strengthen the argument, the arguer would have to provide evidence that automobile mainte-nance and airplane maintenance are similar in every aspect.

如何加强原论证

论者必须提出证据来表明...

First, the argument is based on a false analogy. The arguer simply assumes that airplane mechanics and automobile maintenance crews perform many similar functions, but he does not provide any evidence that their functions are indeed comparable. As we know, the structure, operation and function of airplanes and those of automobiles differ conspicuously.

基于一个错误的类比

To strengthen the argument, the arguer would have to provide evidence that automobile maint-enance and airplane mainten-ance are similar in every aspect. To better evaluate the argument, we would need more information about the relationship between improved maintenance and greater customer satisfaction along with greater profits.

必须证明这两个东西在每一方面都是相似的。

Second, the arguer commits a fallacy of hasty generalization. Even if the maintenance of the airline has been improved as a result of sending its mechanics to the Seminar, which is, of course, an unwarranted assumption, it does not follow that there will be greater profits as well as greater customer satisfaction for the airline. As we know, customer satisfaction depends on several major factors other than good maintenance of the airplane.

犯了一个急于概括的逻辑错误

To better evaluate the argument, we would need more information about the relationship between improved maintenance and greater customer satisfaction along with greater profits.

照应正文的第二段攻击的方面

第二节

Argument结尾的写作

To sum up, the conclusion lacks credibility because the evidence cited in the analysis does not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains. To strengthen the argu-ment, the arguer would have to provide more evidence concerning the percentage of the affected families and their geographical distribution.

这个结论是缺少可信度的，因为这段分析里引用的证据并不能强有力的支持作者的主张

为了加强这段论述，论者还必须提供更多证据

To better evaluate the argument, we would need more information regarding the electric expense relevant to the actual amount of time for cooling among, respectively, the three groups of households and the amount of electricity used for other purposes in all three groups of families under survey.

为了加强这段论述，论者还必须提供更多证据

分别对应

与……相关

As it stands, the argument is not well reasoned. To make it logically acceptable, the arguer would have to demonstrate that an offer of employment to the spouse is the only condition that new professors consider on accepting Pierce's offer. Additionally, the arguer must provide evidence to rule out other possible causes of the low staff morale at the university.

按照这段论述的现状来看是推理不严密的

To conclude, this argument is not persuasive as it stands. Before we accept the conclusion, the arguer must present more facts that Good-Taste has indeed failed to meet the requirements of Cedar Corporation. To solidify the argument, the arguer would have to produce more evidence concerning the foods and service of Discount and how they can better meet the needs of Cedar's employees.

可以套用的结尾

In summary, the conclusion reached in this argument is invalid and misleading. To make the argument more convincing, the arguer would have to prove that college-bound students are most concerned about the promise of jobs after graduation and that Foley College can keep its promise in the end.

这句话也是可以现成套用

Moreover, I would suspend my judgment about the credibility of the recommendation until the arguer can provide concrete evidence that promising students jobs can actually encourage them to work harder in their study. Otherwise, the arguer is simply begging the question throughout the argument.

结尾的写作是程序性的写作，很有规律

熟悉上面几个套路，在几个题目上面运用一下

但是还是提倡创造

问题在于Argument这种文章

创造有难度

In this argument, the merchant wants to establish  a ski resort.

want 在这种文体里面显得过于随意

recommends the building of a ski resort.

intend to do sth.

在分析里边把 "I believe… "写进去是不明智的

要在叙述时让人感到你是一个冷静的分析者是运用理性在说话

而不是运用自己的信念和感情，主观的东西不能出现。

第三节

Argument 题目中的逻辑问题

数据调查要考虑的基本步骤

1 procedure 程序

The Department of Education in the state of Attra recommends that high school students be assigned homework every day. Yet a recent statewide survey of high school math and science teachers calls the usefulness of daily homework into question. In the district of Sanlee, 86 percent of the teachers reported assigning homework three to five times a week. Yet the students in Marlee earn better grades overall and are less likely to be required to repeat a year of school than are the students in Sanlee.

Therefore, all teachers in our high schools should assign homework no more than twice a week, if at all.

Yet a recent statewide survey of high school math and science teachers calls the usefulness of daily homework into question. In the district of Sanlee, 86 percent of the teachers reported assigning homework three to five times a week, whereas in the district of Marlee, less than 25 percent of the teachers reported assigning homework three to five times a week.  Yet the students in Marlee earn better grades overall and are less likely to be required to repeat a year of school than are the students in Sanlee.

问题1

调查程序并未保证全面性和随机性。

1.        只调查了两个district

2.        参与调查的老师的人数

科目也不是所有的课程

这个结果不能反映全州的各个地区情况

corelation 和 causal relation

相关性和因果关系混淆

有可能这两个州的差别不仅仅

表现在老师布置的作业多少的方面

同时可能还有其他方面的差异导致学生成绩的差

所以相关性不能简单的等同于因果关系

因果关系必然包含相关性

因果关系必然包含相关性，但是

反过来却不能简单等同的

所以我们就可以去假定其他的

原因导致两个地区学生成绩的差异

所以我们就可以去假定其他的

原因导致两个地区学生成绩的

差异。

比如：the qualification of  teachers  教师的资历

所以我们就可以去假定其他的

原因导致两个地区学生成绩的差异。

比如：course hours  课程时间

比如：teaching method  教学方法

比如：text books 教材

Therefore, all teachers in our high schools should assign homework no more than twice a week, if at all.

3. 主张中  sweeping generalization   以偏概全的概述。

以偏概全的概述。一周不超过2次是一个未经证实的主张

问题2

How large was the sample  样品有多大

这个问题所涉及的总的对象是什么人，有多大和作者抽取样品的比较，

如果距离太大就可从这个角度怀疑结果的可靠性，不能说明整体的情况。

Many other companies have recently stated that having their employees take the Easy Read Speed-Reading Course has greatly improved productivity. One graduate of the course was able to read a five-hundred-page report in only two hours; another graduate rose from an assistant manger to vice president of the company in under a year, Obviously, the faster you can read, the more information you can absorb in a single workday.Moreover, Easy Read costs only $500 per employee-a small price to pay when you consider the benefits to Acme. Included in this fee is a three-week seminar in Spruce City and a lifelong subscription to the Easy Read newsletter.

Clearly, Acme would benefit greatly by requiring all of our employees to take the Easy Read course.

sample 的 size 太小

sample两个人，数据不足

The arguer fails to convince us that the easy read Speed-Reading course could effectively improve participants the reading speed.

How many people participated?

What extent do this participance

improve their reading speed?

都没有数据表明，有多少人参加？

提高了多少阅读速度？

第四节

Argument 题目中的逻辑问题

数据调查要考虑的基本步骤

Many other companies have recently stated that having their employees take the Easy Read Speed-Reading Course has greatly improved productivity. One graduate of the course was able to read a five-hundred-page report in only two hours; another graduate rose from an assistant manager to vice president of the company in under a year, Obviously, the faster you can read, the more information you can absorb in a single workday.Moreover, Easy Read costs only $500 per employee-a small price to pay when you consider the benefits to Acme. Included in this fee is a three-week seminar in Spruce City and a lifelong subscription to the Easy Read newsletter.

How many people participated?

What extent do this participance

mprove their reading speed?

都没有数据表明，有多少人参加？

提高了多少阅读速度？

有一个错误类比：false analogy

1 出版社的性质和其它公司性质有区别

2 出版社是否每个员工都需要提高阅读速度

公司间对员工素质要求不同。

3 费用的问题，无数据证明,无比较。Unfairly assumes that five hundred dollars per employee is reasonable price.

第三个观察角度

complete完整性的问题掩盖了不利的数据

"When the neighboring town of Williamsville adopted a curfew four months ago that made it illegal for persons under the age of 18 to loiter or idle in public places after 10 p.m., youth crime in Williamsville dropped by 27 percent during curfew hours. In Williamville's town square, the area where its citizens were once most outraged at the high crime rate, not a single crime has been reported since the curfew was introduced.

Therefore, to help reduce its own rising crime rate, the town of Dalton should adopt the same kind of curfew. A curfew that keeps young people at home late at night will surely control juvenile delinquency and protect minor from becoming victims of crime."

1 procedure 程序

Therefore, to help reduce its own rising crime rate, the town of Dalton should adopt the same kind of curfew. A curfew that keeps young people at home late at night will surely control juvenile delinquency and protect minor from becoming victims of crime."

假设：宵禁以外的犯罪率可能增加了成年人犯罪可能上升。没有报道等不等于没发生？

错误类比：Williamsville —— Dalton

The arguer commits a fallacy of false analogy.

这两个城镇其他方面不一定都可以类比

1 犯罪的时间

2 有无其他原因：education moral education  drugs  alcohol

第五节

"When the neighboring town of Williamsville adopted a curfew four months ago that made it illegal for persons under the age of 18 to loiter or idle in public places after 10 p.m., youth crime in Williamsville dropped by 27 percent during curfew hours. In Williamville's town square, the area where its citizens were once most outraged at the high crime rate, not a single crime has been reported since the curfew was introduced.

1 procedure 程序

Different：数据是否重要

make a difference = important

也许数据和要说明的问题之间并没有

必然的强有力的联系只是很牵强的

一种表层的一种联系不能有效的支

持这种假设。

"Walnut Groves' town council has advocated switching from EZ Disposal (which has had the contract for trash collection services in Walnut Grove for the past ten years) to ABC Waste, because EZ recently raised its monthly fee from $2000 to $2,500 a month, whereas ABC's fee is still $2,000. But the town council is mistaken; we should continue using EZ. EZ collects trash twice a week, while ABC collects only once. Moreover, EZ-which, like ABC, currently has a fleet of 20 trucks-has ordered additional trucks. Finally, EZ provides exceptional service: 80 percent of respondents to last year's town survey agreed that they were 'satisfied' with EZ's performance."

"Walnut Groves' town council has advocated switching from EZ Disposal (which has had the contract for trash collection services in Walnut Grove for the past ten years) to ABC Waste, because EZ recently raised its monthly fee from $2000 to $2,500 a month, whereas ABC's fee is still $2,000.

1 procedure 程序

But the town council is mistaken; we should continue using EZ. EZ collects trash twice a week, while ABC collects only once. Moreover, EZ-which, like ABC, currently has a fleet of 20 trucks-has ordered additional trucks. Finally, EZ provides exceptional service: 80 percent of respondents to last year's town survey agreed that they were 'satisfied' with EZ's performance."

Argument 题目中的逻辑问题

     数据调查要考虑的步骤

1 procedure 程序

Different：数据是否重要

攻击的第一个方面：次数

这个数据是否重要是没有

证据表明的

这个地区的居民更关心价格还是

频率没有证据表明

The arguer fails to provide necessary evidence about whether residents are more concerned about  the frequency of the waste collection than the amount of money they are charged.

But the town council is mistaken; we should continue using EZ. EZ collects trash twice a week, while ABC collects only once. Moreover, EZ-which, like ABC, currently has a fleet of 20 trucks-has ordered additional trucks. Finally, EZ provides exceptional service: 80 percent of respondents to last year's town survey agreed that they were 'satisfied' with EZ's performance."

1 procedure 程序

Different：数据是否重要

另外一方面：

公司准备增加trucks, 无证据表

明trucks越多，服务越好，

没有证明additional trucks的重要性

再一个：居民的态度

没有证明居民对EZ.的服务比ABC的更满意

80%的被调查的人并没有说是80%的居民,对ABC满意度没有给出。

再一个：居民的态度

The arguer fails to indicate the attitude of the residents to the  ABC's performance.

2. 数据是否模糊vague ,misleading

According to a poll of 200 charitable organizations, donations of money to nonprofit groups increased by nearly 25 percent last year, though not all charities gained equally. Religious groups gained the most (30 percent), followed by environmental groups (23 percent), whereas educational institutions experienced only a very small increase in donation (3 percent).

This poll indicates that more people are willing and able to give money to charities but that funding for education is not a priority for most people.

According to a poll of 200 charitable organizations, donations of money to nonprofit groups increased by nearly 25 percent last year, though not all charities gained equally. Religious groups gained the most (30 percent), followed by environmental groups (23 percent), whereas educational institutions experienced only a very small increase in donation (3 percent). This poll indicates that more people are willing and able to give money to charities but that funding for education is not a priority for most people.

前年捐赠的底数不知道base amount

第六节

According to a poll of 200 charitable organizations, donations of money to nonprofit groups increased by nearly 25 percent last year, though not all charities gained equally. Religious groups gained the most (30 percent), followed by environmental groups (23 percent), whereas educational institutions experienced only a very small increase in donation (3 percent). This poll indicates that more people are willing and able to give money to charities but that funding for education is not a priority for most people.

2. 数据是否模糊vague ,misleading Question:what question was asked.

调查的时候问的是什么？

有经验的调查者为了自己的利益可能会有意的设计一些具有误导暗示、陷阱性的问题，来操纵被调查者的选择

loaded question 暗示性的问题

Have you quitted beating your girlfriend ?

The following appeared in an editorial in a business magazine.

"Although the sales of Whirlwind video games have declined over the past two years, a recent survey of video-game players suggests that this sales trend is about to be reversed. The survey asked video-game players what features they thought were most important in a video game. According to the survey, players prefer games that provide lifelike graphics, which require the most up-to-date computers

this sales trend is about to be reversed. Prediction

问的是player对什么样的游戏感兴趣

并不能反映市场上什么样的游戏是最缺货最畅销的

而且市场上可能已经出现许多公司销售这种游戏,也有可能消费者已经得到满足。

还要考虑价格,还有硬件问题

目前的硬件是否available

第七节

Argument 题目中的逻辑问题

数据调查要考虑的步骤

3 average 平均数的问题，不适合每一个成员

The following appeared in a letter from the manager of a rock band named Double Rice.

"One year ago, tickets for Double Rice's concerts in stadiums around the country took, on average, at least 24 hours to sell out, if they sold out at all. But the band has been enjoying a surge in nationwide popularity among 14 to 25 year olds, and the 30,000 tickets for a recent concert in Megalopolis sold out in 12 minutes.

3 average 平均数的问题

Thus, in order to ensure that the band's success in Megalopolis is repeated across the country, the band should hire Ad Lib to duplicate the Megalopolis ad campaign on a nationwide scale."

3 average 平均数的问题

Thus

The following appeared in a letter from the manager of a rock band named Double Rice.

"One year ago, tickets for Double Rice's concerts in stadiums around the country took, on average, at least 24 hours to sell out, if they sold out at all. But the band has been enjoying a surge in nationwide popularity among 14 to 25 year olds, and the 30,000 tickets for a recent concert in Megalopolis sold out in 12 minutes.

关键性的假设：

在Megalopolis的销售是否成功？

一年前销售的速度是平均24小时

并不表明每个城镇都是24小时

现在说Megalopolis销售3万张票花了12分钟我们并不知道全国范

围内销售了多少张票花了24小时

Confusing causal relation with correlation

因果关系和相关性混同起来

每一个因果关系都包含相关性,但是数据类的相关性并不一定意味着因

果关系

A recent study suggests that people who are left-handed are more likely to succeed in business than are right-handed people. Researchers studied photographs of 1,000 prominent business executives and found that 21 percent of these executives wrote with their left hand. So the percentage of prominent business executives who are left-handed (21 percent) is almost twice the percentage of people in the general population who are left-handed (11 percent).

Confusing causal relation with

corelation

因果关系和相关性混同起来

Thus, people who are left-handed would be well advised to pursue a career in business, whereas people who are right-handed would be well advised to imitate the business practices exhibited by left-handers.

信号词：Thus

A recent study suggests that people who are left-handed are more likely to succeed in business than are right-handed people. Researchers studied photographs of 1,000 prominent business executives and found that 21 percent of these executives wrote with their left hand. So the percentage of prominent business executives who are left-handed (21 percent) is almost twice the percentage of people in the general population who are left-handed (11 percent).

因果关系和相关性混同起来在business executives有更高的比例的人，并不能够因果的导致左撇子更适合于做商业

Confusing causal relation with correlation

因果关系和相关性混同起来并不是所有左撇子在商业上面都成功

因果关系和相关性混同起来如果只是说21%的左撇子成功了只是一种相关性有可能有其他的因素促进他们的商业成功

因果关系和相关性混同起来其他的因素：良好的商业教育 家庭背景

第八节

Argument 题目中的逻辑问题

其他类型的逻辑错误

1 begging the question 循环论证

假定一个关键性假设在未经证实情况下是成立的

The following appeared in a letter from the owner of the Sunnyside Towers apartment building to its manager.

"One month ago, all the showerheads on the first five floors of Sunnyside towers were modified to restrict the water flow to approximately 1/3 of its original force. Although actual readings of water usage before and after the adjustment are not yet available, the change will obviously result in a considerable saving for Sunnyside Corporation, since the corporation must pay for water each month.

Except for a few complaints about low water pressure, no problems with showers have been reported since the adjustment. Clearly, restricting water flow throughout all the 20 floors of Sunnyside Towers will increase our profits further.

1 begging the question 循环论证

The following appeared in a letter from the owner of the Sunnyside Towers apartment building to its manger.

"One month ago, all the showerheads on the first five floors of Sunnyside towers were modified to restrict the water flow to approximately 1/3 of its original force. Although actual readings of water usage before and after the adjustment are not yet available, the change will obviously result in a considerable saving for Sunnyside Corporation, since the corporation must pay for water each month.

没有直接的证据表明是否省钱

可能用户增加用水的时间

2 fallacy of missing evidence

证据缺失，证据不足

"Because of its spectacular natural beauty and consistent climate, Clearview should be a top choice for anyone seeking a place to retire. As a bonus, housing costs in Clearview have fallen significantly during the past year, and real estate taxes remain lower than those in neighboring towns. Nevertheless, Clearview's mayor promises many new programs to improve schools, street, and public services. Retirees in Clearview can also expect excellent health care as they grow older, since the number of physicians in the area is far greater than the national average."

2 fallacy of missing evidence 证据缺失，证据不足original cost?原成本

the present actual cost isn'tclear.

非邻镇的情况怎样

Nevertheless, Clearview's mayor promises many new programs to improve schools, street, and public services. Retirees in Clearview can also expect excellent health care as they grow older, since the number of physicians in the area is far greater than the national average."

医生的数量比全国平均数高的多   

肯定有城镇比它高

而且医疗服务的质量 quality

promise能兑现么

counter examples

第九节

Argument 题目中的逻辑问题

其他类型的逻辑错误

false analogy 错误类比

基本特征：只看到所比较的两事物表层相似，忽略深层差异

"Two years ago, the town of Ocean View built a new municipal golf course and resort hotel. During the past two years, tourism in Ocean  View has increased, new businesses have opened there, and Ocean View's tax revenues have risen by 30 percent. The best way to improve Hopewell's economy, and generate additional tax revenues, is to build a golf course and resort hotel similar to those in Ocean View."

ocean view

旅游城镇每年很多 tourists

可假定 Hopewell inland town

agriculture town

没有旅游资源

false dilemma/either or fallacy 两难处境

将一个问题的解决途径划为非此即彼两种

"Fifteen years ago, Omega University implemented a new procedure that encouraged students to evaluate the teaching effectiveness of all their professors. Since that time, Omega professors have begun to assign higher grades in their classes, and overall student grade averages at Omega have risen by thirty percent. Potential employers apparently believe the grades at Omega are inflated; this would explain why Omega graduates have not been as successful at getting jobs as have graduates from nearby Alpha University. To enable its graduates to secure better jobs, Omega University should now terminate student evaluation of professors."

3         false dilemma/either or fallacy

"Fifteen years ago, Omega University implemented a new procedure that encouraged students to evaluate the teaching effectiveness of all their professors. Since that time, Omega professors have begun to assign higher grades in their classes, and overall student grade averages at Omega have risen by thirty percent.

对于高分的数量给予限定

也可让老师提供试卷的样卷

将学生评价和老师同行内的评价

结合起来学生给老师评分的好处没有见到

4         non sequitar (causal) 非因果关系

non-causal relationship

"In the past, the body styles of Patriot cars have been old-fashioned, and our cars have not sold as well as have our competitors' cars. But now, since many regions in this country report rapid increases in the numbers of newly licensed drivers, we should be able to increase our share of the market by selling cars to this growing population.

Thus, we should discontinue our oldest models and concentrate instead on manufacturing sporty cars. We can also improve the success of our marketing campaigns by switching our advertising to the Youth Advertising agency, which has successfully promoted the country's leading soft drink."

5         non sequitar (causal) 非因果关系

直接过渡到 sporty cars

无任何证据证明新拿到驾照的人

喜欢 sporty cars

这些人当中有多少人喜欢 sporty cars

必须拿出数据来

第十节

Argument 题目中的逻辑问题

其他类型的逻辑错误

6  post hoc. ergo proter hoc.

    After this, therefore because of this

    把时间先后关系混同为因果关系

先后关系不能简单等同于因果关系

"In recent years, Liber has unfortunately moved away from its original mission: to publish the works of regional small-town authors instead of those of big-city authors. Just last year, 90 percent of the novels we published were written by authors who maintain a residence in a big city. Although this change must have been intended to increase profits, it has obviously backfired, because Liber is now in serious financial trouble. The only way to address this problem is to return to our original mission. If we return to publishing only the works of regional small-town authors, our financial troubles will soon be resolved."

6         post hoc. ergo proter hoc

The only way to address this problem is to return to our original mission. If we return to publishing only the works of regional small-town authors, our financial troubles will soon be resolved."

"In recent years, Liber has unfortunately moved away from its original mission: to publish the works of regional small-town authors instead of those of big-city authors. Just last year, 90 percent of the novels we published were written by authors who maintain a residence in a big city. Although this change must have been intended to increase profits, it has obviously backfired, because Liber is now in serious financial trouble.

没有直接的证据证明大城市作者的

作品导致这个问题的产生

overstocking the works written by

small-towns authors  marketing

未排除明年profits会大幅度增长，没有

直接证据指出大城市作者的作品卖不出去

7         concurrence 可能有因果关系，但不一定

Ever since the 1950's, when television sets began to appear in the average home, the rate of crimes committed by teenagers in the country of Alta has steadily increased. This increase in teenage crime parallels the increase in violence shown on television. According to several national studies, even very young children who watch a great number of television shows featuring violent scenes display more violent behavior within their home environment than do children who do not watch violent shows.

8         concurrence 其他原因：

education

broken families

problem children

unemployment

8         Incomplete comparison or selective comparison

8不完整的比较或者有选择的比较



"The surface of a section of Route 101, paved two years ago by McAdam Road Builders, is now badly cracked and marred by dangerous potholes. In another part of the state, a section of Route 66, paved by Appian Roadways more than four years ago, is still in good condition. Appian Roadways has recently purchased state-of-the-art paving machinery, and it has hired a new quality-control manager. Because of its superior work and commitment to quality, we should contract with Appian Roadways rather than McAdam Road Builders to construct the access roads for all our new shopping malls."

8 Incomplete comparison or

   selective comparison

   基于两个方面的不完整的比较：

1 道路情况

    要考虑保养 maintenance  交通 traffic

   weather、climate

2 Appian公司购买最新的铺路

   机器，并且请了质量保证人 但是相应McAdam的情况没有说明.

现在雇佣的 manager.

   是不是competent manager

9         composition and division 整体与部分关系

基本原则：对于整体是真实的判断，对于其构成部分不一定是真实的判断

反之对于构成部分是真实的判断，对于整体不一定是真实的判断。

第三课时
第一节

Argument 的写作

Unless a person undertakes more than he possibly can do, he will never do all he can do.

aim high

Be brave and take the challenge.

Composition and Division

91. The following appeared in a letter to the editor of the Parkville Daily Newspaper.

"Throughout the country last year, as more and more children below the age of nine participated in youth-league softball and soccer, over 80,000 of these young players suffered injuries. When interviewed for a recent study, youth-league softball players in several major cities also reported psychological pressure from coaches and parents to win games. Furthermore, education experts say that long practice session for these sports take away time that could be used for academic activities. Since the disadvantages apparently outweigh any advantages, we in Parkville should discontinue organized athletic competition for children under nine."

Composition and Division

对于整体是真实的判断对于其构成部分不一定真实；对于其构成部分整体是真实的判断对于其整体不一定真实

Parkville与Throughout the country 是整体与部分的关系

Throughout the country的调查情况不一定适用于Parkville

Children in Parkville suffered severe injuries 是不确定的情况

作者只调查了一种运动形式（softball）和局部地区（several major cities），却

要求禁止所有团队形式的运动是不合适的教育专家并没有说所有的运动都浪费时间

论者忽略了这些运动可以带来的好处

例如：1 促进健康

      2 培养团队精神

开始部分是 Issue Topics 的题库;有11类

第二节

Argument 的写作

开始部分是 Issue Topics 的题库;有11类

在Argument 部分的写作步骤：

1、审题

2、按格式写第一段落

3、写出提纲

笔考时，可以在纸上作记号

after this    （assumption ）   (procedure)

1. The following appeared in a memorandum written by the vice president of Nature's Way, a chain of stores selling health food and other health-related products.

    "Previous experience has shown that our stores are most profitable in areas where residents are highly concerned with leading healthy lives. We should therefore build our next new store in Plainsville, which has many such residents. Plainsville merchants report that sales of running shoes and exercise clothing are at all-time highs. The local health club, which nearly closed five years ago due to lack of business, has more members than ever, and the weight training and aerobics classes are always full.

1.  Nature's Way should build a new store in Plainsville.

A. In the first place, the argument is based on the gratuitous assumption that the residents in Plainsville who are enthusiastic about sports and exercise will automatically become Nature's Way's customers.

B. In the second place, the arguer fails to take into account other relevant factors that might affect the business of Nature's Way in Plainsville, such as the presence of competitors, the population of the area, the eating habits of the local residents, etc.

第三节

1. The following appeared in a memorandum written by the vice president of Nature's Way, a chain of stores selling health food and other health-related products.

    "Previous experience has shown that our stores are most profitable in areas where residents are highly concerned with leading healthy lives. We should therefore build our next new store in Plainsville, which has many such residents. Plainsville merchants report that sales of running shoes and exercise clothing are at all-time highs. The local health club, which nearly closed five years ago due to lack ofbusiness, has more members than ever, and the weight training and aerobics classes are always full.

We can even anticipate a new generation of customers: Plainsville's schoolchildren are required to participate in a 'fitness for life' program, which emphasizes the benefits of regular exercise at an early age."

补充的一点：

Finally, the arguer does not provide concrete evidence to demonstrate the exact number of  residents who are concerned with leading healthy lives in  Plainsville

虽然是all-time highs，但对过去的情况

不清楚

现在的成员比过去多很多，不能表明其成员很多

How many classes 总报满以及班的规模

都不清楚

学生虽然参加了如 'fitness for life' program,但他们成长为消费者需要一段时间

没有清楚的证明这个城镇的居民中对健康感兴趣的人有多少

2.   The following appeared in a letter sent by a committee of homeowners from the Deerhaven Acres to all homeowners in Deerhaven Acres.

   "Seven years ago, homeowners in nearby Brookville community adopted a set of restrictions on how the community's yards should be landscaped and what colors the exteriors of homes should be painted. Since then, average property values have tripled in Brookville. In order to raise property values in Deerhaven Acres, we should adopt our own set of restrictions on landscaping and housepainting."

2. Deerhaven Acres should adopt a set of restrictions on landscaping and housepainting.

A.  First of all, the arguer commits a fallacy of "after this, therefore because of this" in assuming that adopting a set of restrictions regarding the landscaping of yards and the painting of the exteriors of homes has resulted in the tripling of the property values in Brookville.

B.  In addition, based on a false analogy, the arguer unfairly assumes that Deerhaven Acres could necessarily raise its property values by simply copying the policy of Brookville.

错误类比

不是前边的情况必然导致后边的情况；有可能是因为其他的因素

房地产的升值可能由于经济（booming economy )因素、大量的新移民需要

房屋；土地的升值等因素导致

错误类比，忽略了两个社区的差异

If the economy of  Deerhaven Acres remain stagnant ; if local residents leave here ; if the environment deteriorate ; if homes are overbulit 都是可能的因素

3.  The following appeared in a newspaper article about law firms in the city of Megalopolis.

   "In Megalopolis, the number of law school graduates who went to work for large, corporate firms declined by 15% over the last three years, whereas an increasing number of graduates took jobs at small, general practice firms. Even though large firms usually offer much higher salaries, law school graduates are choosing to work for the smaller firms most likely because they experience greater job satisfaction at smaller firms. In a survey of first-year students at a leading law school, most agreed with the statement that earning a high salary was less important to them than job satisfaction.

This finding suggests that the large, corporate firms of Megalopolis will need to offer graduates more benefits and incentives and reduce the number of hours they must work."

3. The large firms should offer law school graduates more benefits.

A. In the first  place, the arguer fails to convince us that it was the lack of job satisfaction that resulted in the 15% decline in the number of law school graduates who went to work for large corporate firms.

B. In the second place, the result of the survey of first-year students at a leading law school does not lend strong support to the assumption that the smaller firm in the city of Megalopolis could offer more job satisfaction to graduates who choose to work there.

C. Finally, no evidence is provided as to why the large, corporate firms should offer graduates more benefits and incentives and reduce the number of work hours and how taking these actions could lead to job satisfaction.

有可能有其他的原因导致去大公司的法律专业毕业生人数下降

可能因素1、大公司的法律专业毕业生人数过剩

可能因素2、大公司的数量下降了

第四节

调查的对象不对：应当调查实际去企业的毕业生，而不是刚进高校的一年级的学生

法律专业毕业生去小企业的更多也许是因为小企业有更多的就业机会；小企业的业务扩张得很快

作者对大公司的假设只是作者的臆断；并没有充分的证据

作者忽略了其他的影响工作满意度的因素：比如：晋升的机会；企业的文化；公司形象

    "Of the two leading real estate firms in our town--Adams Realty and Fitch Realty--Adams is clearly superior. Adams has 40 real estate agents. In contrast, Fitch has 25, many of whom work only part-time. Moreover, Adams' revenue last year was twice as high as that of Fitch, and included home sales that averaged $168,000, compared to Fitch's $144,000. Homes listed with Adams sell faster as well: ten years ago, I listed my home with Fitch and it took more than four months to sell; last year, when I sold another home, I listed it with Adams, and it took only one month. Thus, if you want to sell your home quickly and at a good price, you should use Adams."

4. You should use Adams to sell your home.

A. The arguer unfairly assumes that Fitch Realty necessarily sells homes more slowly than Adams Realty.

B.  Another assumption in short of legitimacy is that Adams can sell every home at a better price than Fitch.

Fitch Realty 比Adams Realty卖房子

卖得慢是无理的假设

只有一个调查，样品太小

    "Of the two leading real estate firms in our town--Adams Realty and Fitch Realty--Adams is clearly superior. Adams has 40 real estate agents. In contrast, Fitch has 25, many of whom work only part-time. Moreover, Adams' revenue last year was twice as high as that of Fitch, and included home sales that averaged $168,000, compared to Fitch's $144,000. Homes listed with Adams sell faster as well: ten years ago, I listed my home with Fitch and it took more than four months to sell; last year, when I sold another home, I listed it with Adams, and it took only one month. Thus, if you want to sell your home quickly and at a good price, you should use Adams."

时间概念要考虑进去：10年前和上个月的大的经济环境不同，市场的需求不同，销售的情况就不同，与公司不一定有必然的联系，要考虑房地产市场的变化

不应该只看人数，也许人数不重要，而他们的工作业绩没有清楚表明

Adams 的收入高，可能是它对客户的收费

也高

由文章可以看出：Adams善于卖高价房，

Fitch善于低价房，可是作者主张所有种类的房子都找Adams卖

Adams might be good at selling high price  homes, but not be for all homeowners.

4. You should use Adams to sell your home.

A. The arguer unfairly assumes that Fitch Realty necessarily sells homes more slowly than Adams Realty.

B.  Another assumption in short of legitimacy is that Adams can sell every home at a better price than Fitch.

5.  The following was written as a part of an application for a small business loan by a group of developers in the city of Monroe.

    "A jazz music club in Monroe would be a tremendously profitable enterprise. Currently, the nearest jazz club is 65 miles away; thus, our proposed club, the C Note, would have the local market all to itself. Plus, jazz is extremely popular in Monroe: over 100,000 people attended Monroe's jazz festival last summer, several well-known jazz musicians live in Monroe, and the highest-rated radio program in Monroe is 'Jazz Nightly,' which airs every weeknight. Finally, a nationwide study indicates that the typical jazz fan spends close to $1,000 per year on jazz entertainment. It is clear that the C Note cannot help but make money."

第五节

5.  The C Note cannot help but make money.

A. Although over 100,000 people attended Monroe's jazz festival last year, in the absence of detailed statistics, it is impossible to tell how many of these 100,000 people are local Monroe people and how many of them are typical jazz fans who each spend $1000 per year on jazz entertainment.

B. In addition, whether the proposed club can have the local market all to itself is still open to doubt since 65 miles is not such a big obstacle for jazz fans who have private cars.

参加音乐节的人可能许多是从外地来的，而其中有多少本地的 typical jazz fans 是可以消费1000美元在jazz上；整体的情况不一定符合局部

Topic sentence:

The arguer fails to convince us that jazz is extremely popular in Monroe.

Most attendance might come from neighboring towns

highest-rated radio program 并不表明

是一most 的居民参与了，有可能是因为听

广播的听众本来就少

如果人们有汽车，65英里的距离就不算什么了

是否能占领全部的本地市场，还取决于表演的水平和节目内容

作者的概括证据不足

第六节

手写作文的注意事项

1、可以在卷面上修改，建议用铅笔写字,修改时可以用相应的符号，两边的边框空得稍大，便于插入单词

2、两个单词间的距离大一些，字写得稍大些

3、每个段落的开始处空几个字符的距离，可空6-8个字母，而段落与段落之间就不空

行了，或者可以每个段落的开始处顶格写，而段落与段落之间就空一行

4、平时训练时注意要基本上一次写成，再稍做修改，而不要再在大程度上改动

5、如果要表示把写在一起的两个段落分开，可以划两条斜线表示

10. The following appeared in a memo from the mayor of the town of West Egg.

   "Two years ago, our consultants predicted that West Egg's landfill, which is used for garbage disposal, would be completely filled within five years. During the past two years, however, town residents have been recycling twice as much aluminum and paper as they did in previous years. Next month the amount of material recycled should further increase, since charges for garbage pickup will double. Furthermore, over ninety percent of the respondents to a recent survey said that they would do more recycling in the future. Because of our residents' strong commitment to recycling, the available space in our landfill should last for considerably longer than predicted."

10.  West Egg's landfill should last longer than expected.

A. The arguer fails to rule out the possibility that the growth of population and industry at West Egg may lead to more garbage disposal, which could offset the decrease of garbage disposal caused by garbage recycling.

B. Another unwarranted assumption is that the amount of material recycled should continue to increase.

C. Finally, in the absence of the procedure of the survey, the result of the survey tells us little about the overall attitude of the residents toward recycling in the future.

除了人口增加的因素外，还可能有工业增加的因素

industrial waste

作者未提及公共垃圾public garbage

虽然垃圾的回收量在增加，但只有两种垃圾可以被回收，而其他的大量的不可以被回收再利用的垃圾还有可能增加

可以被回收再利用的垃圾的数量是否增加还要取决于能够被回收再利用的垃圾的总数

除了人口增加的因素外，还可能有工业增加的因素

industrial waste

作者未提及公共垃圾public garbage

虽然垃圾的回收量在增加，但只有两种垃圾可以被回收，而其他的大量的不可以被回收再利用的垃圾还有可能增加

可以被回收再利用的垃圾的数量是否增加还要取决于能够被回收再利用的垃圾的总数

第七节

回答调查的人可能只是很小的数字，不能代表全部的居民

10. The following appeared in a memo from the mayor of the town of West Egg.

  "Two years ago, our consultants predicted that West Egg's landfill, which is used for garbage disposal, would be completely filled within five years. During the past two years, however, town residents have been recycling twice as much aluminum and paper as they did in previous years. Next month the amount of material recycled should further increase, since charges for garbage pickup will double. Furthermore, over ninety percent of the respondents to a recent survey said that they would do more recycling in the future. Because of our residents' strong commitment to recycling, the available space in our landfill should last for considerably longer than predicted."

16. The following appeared in an editorial in a Prunty County newspaper.

   "In an attempt to improve highway safety, Prunty County recently lowered its speed limit from 55 miles per hour to 45 on all major county roads. But the 55 mph limit should be restored, because this safety effort has failed. Most drivers are exceeding the new speed limit and the accident rate throughout Prunty County has decreased only slightly. If we want to improve the safety of our roads, we should instead undertake the same kind of road improvement project that Butler County completed five years ago: increasing lane widths and resurfacing rough roads.

Today, major Butler County roads still have a 55 mph speed limit, yet there were 25 percent fewer reported accidents in Butler County this past year than there were five years ago."

16. Prunty County should restore its 55mph limit and imitate Butler County's road improvement project.

A. First, the arguer fails to warrant the assumption that the safety effort of Prunty County has failed.

B. Second, the assumption that Butler's road improvement project  succeeded in lowering its rate of accidents is open to doubt.

C. Finally, the argument is based on a false analogy.

1、指出应该作出比较，以超过新的时速限制的司机的事故率（没有清楚的表明）和按照新的时速限制的司机的事故率进行比较

2、进行时速限制只是在主要的路段，而次要的路段并没有时速限制，这样就有可能使次要的路段的高事故率影响了主要的路段的事故率

accident rate on major County road vs accident rate on minor road

针对B，可以提出以下几点

1、改善工作在前，事故率下降在后，是前后关系，而不是因果关系；也有可能在这期间采取了一些其它的措施来降低事故率：比如改善了交通灯和路标、对司机进行了培训

错误类比

这两条公路有其他方面的差异，

例如：1、天气的差异；

2、道路拥挤程度的不同；两条线路各自的道路总里程和相对的车辆的数量（total mileage of roads in relation to the number of  vehicles ）是不同的

Butler County把路加宽可能是因为其路

上的车辆更多，而Prunty